【翻譯練習】平凡家具的十件妙事

Ten Surprising Facts About Everyday Household Objects

作者： Amy Azzarito
來源：https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/ten-surprising-facts-about-everyday-household-objects-180974566/

　　世界上各個角落，從最簡陋的住所到最奢華的別墅，家永遠是將我們隔絕於外在塵囂的避風港。現在很多人的日常生活因為隔離而天翻地覆，忽然間，家成了我們的全世界。

　　每當談到有什麼科技幫助我們順利度過居家生活，我們總會先想到那些將人類與外界連結起來的電子用品。但令人訝異的是，我們現今習以為常的許多物品，譬如餐巾、叉子和床墊，在古早年代竟也是融合舒適與高科技的奇蹟結晶－－只有少數人能夠受用。現在我們在家裡開空調，以質感家具精心布置，並設有一按開關就能開啟的照明燈具，然而這些在從前全部遙不可及，唯國王與皇后獨享。吊燈、綿軟座椅、枕頭，這些以往僅見於皇家的事物，如今已是凡人生活的常見風景，我們忘記了，除了生存所需的基本必備用品之外，一般人簡直無法觸及絕大部分物品，那些都是社會上層階級的特權。

　　或許你會和我一樣，發覺自己對古人心懷感激，他們在羽毛枕和羽絨被普及之前，刻苦忍受了石製或木製的頭枕，硬梆梆無法調整斜度的椅子，以及無數個寒冷的夜晚 (我們也感謝那些認為事情還有改善空間的古人)。我在《家庭元素：從枕頭到叉子，居家日常用品的奧妙歷史》(The Elements of a Home: Curious Histories Behind Everyday Household Objects, from Pillows to Forks，暫譯) 這本書中，揭露了居家和生活常用品背後不為人知的故事。這些東西都有自己的一段軼事，下面選出我最愛的幾則。

有些家庭世世代代以壁爐作為照明來源

　　壁爐在現代大多當作設計焦點，但是幾千年來壁爐一直都是家裡發熱與發光的重要來源。不管是小屋還是莊園，所有中世紀家庭都以簡單的開放式爐床為中心建造而成－－很像在家裡正中央堆出營火 (這有吸入濃煙的問題吧！)。歐洲各地的家庭會圍在壁爐旁邊煮食、用餐、說故事和睡覺。壁爐在當時生活十分重要，甚至不准爐火熄滅。

叉子曾被認為傷風敗俗、不衛生、是魔鬼的工具

　　事實上，叉子的英文「fork」源自拉丁語「furca」，意思是乾草叉。餐叉是由中東的拜占庭帝國統治階級首度使用。1004 年，拜占庭帝國皇帝巴西爾二世 (Basil II) 和君士坦丁八世 (Constantine VIII) 的姪女瑪麗亞．阿吉羅波利那 (Maria Argyropoulina) 嫁給威尼斯總督之子，她帶著裝有金色雙尖叉的小盒子，在婚宴上使用叉子，此舉嚇壞了威尼斯人。三年後，瑪麗亞染瘟疫離世，聖彼得 (Saint Peter Damian) 稱這是上帝的懲罰。緊接著，聖彼得下令不得使用叉子，這個禁令在歐洲延續了四百多年。

筷子比叉子早出現 4,500 多年

　　最常見的筷子大概是免洗筷，很多日式和中華料理店會用這種便宜木料製成的拋棄式筷子。免洗筷並不是當代的新發明，18 世紀就有日本餐廳率先使用免洗筷。日本的神道信仰認為，曾經放在某人嘴裡的東西，沾有那人的個性成分，因此筷子不可以共用，即使洗過的筷子也不例外。

從前的鑰匙放不下口袋

　　最豪華的奢侈品，不是高織數的床單，也不是光可鑑人的水晶，而是在你關起門、轉上鎖的那刻，隨之生起的安全感和庇護感。不過，要打開古希臘和埃及人巨大的大理石門和青銅門的木鎖，需要用到的鑰匙竟長達 3 呎 (約 91 公分)，而且相當沉重，鑰匙通常會掛在肩膀上，聖經就有提到這樣的例證，先知以賽亞說：「我必將大衛家的鑰匙放在他肩頭上。」

在諸多方面過著鋪張浪費生活的古羅馬人，寢室卻不可思議地樸實無華

　　窮人睡的是放在簡易木床架上的草蓆。若經濟條件允許，可以用青銅甚至銀製的床架，上頭鋪的床墊則填充羊毛或羽絨。床設置在拉丁語名為「cubiculum」的房間 (小隔間英文「cubicle」的字源)，這個小小的空間只有放床，窗戶很小，光線幾乎透不進來。

餐巾的原型是名為「apomagdalie」的麵糰塊

　　住在古希臘軍力強大城市的斯巴達人，把麵糰當作餐巾，他們在桌子上揉出麵糰，把麵糰切成小小的一塊一塊，靈活地用麵糰清潔油膩膩的手指，用餐結束後就把麵糰丟給狗吃。後來，生麵糰烘焙變成麵包。因為希臘人的餐桌上沒有任何餐具，於是麵包也起了湯匙和叉子的功用 (食物會先在廚房切成易入口的大小)，所以在抹鷹嘴豆泥前，會小心用麵包不讓手指接觸到食物，這樣子不但美味，還很方便。

麵包曾經充當餐盤

　　如果你大口喝過盛在麵包湯碗的蛤蜊濃湯，那麼你應該也會喜歡中世紀的餐盤麵包 (trencher)。這種廣泛使用於歐陸和英國的「餐盤」，是把一大塊熟成四天的圓形全麥麵包切開，再切成二個直徑 3 吋的圓形。派對中很少會把餐盤麵包吃掉：餐點吃完以後，剩下的那片餐盤麵包會送給窮人或丟給狗吃。

撲克牌源於唯一精通造紙技術的國家：中國

　　第一次有史書記載的紙牌發明於九世紀，骨牌大小。紙牌遊戲風靡中國，被視為一種益智活動：需要思考，富有挑戰性，同時也具有社交功能。西元 969 年，遼穆宗曾縱情狂飲 25 日，壓軸好戲是和皇后玩牌，不禁令人好奇他是否知道，紙牌這種他所沉迷的消遣娛樂，後來經由絲路一路從印度和波斯傳到歐洲，在歐洲引發撲克牌熱潮。

在古埃及，枕頭比較像是小件的家具，而不是有填充物的氣墊物品

　　為了找到完美的睡姿，我們大半個夜晚都在壓折、翻轉或拍鬆枕頭，很難想像柔軟居然不一定是枕頭的優先考量。對於古代非洲、亞洲和大洋洲的許多人來說，枕頭是個硬梆梆的東西，而不是我們現今賴以一夜好眠、有填充物的氣墊物品。這些早期的枕頭，有些最遠可追溯到古埃及的第三王朝 (Third Dynasty，約西元前 2707-2369 年)，外觀有點像小孩用的小椅凳，有個彎曲面，下有柱子支撐。這種架子是用來支撐脖子的，不是支撐頭部，也許是為了維持住當時流行的髮型，以免頭髮變形。

以往只有農夫的餐桌才會沒鋪桌布

　　現代人認為有沒有桌布都不要緊，這種態度可能會讓中世紀的人大吃一驚。在騎士和他們保護的女士眼中，選用好的桌布，才代表那人有好的教養。若是財力足夠 (或者就算是財力不夠)，會用白色桌布鋪餐桌，而且桌布還要打摺，增添些許魅力。有顏色的桌布會令人覺得影響食欲。(鄉下地方就不限於純白桌布，在鄉下，可能會用彩色的條紋布、蘇格蘭格紋布或棋盤格布織成桌布。) 用餐者沿著桌子的某一端坐著，桌布也只會在那一端垂到地上，這樣就不會讓賓客吹到風，並防止動物在賓客腳下走動。

Throughout the world, from the humblest abode to the most lavish mansion, our homes have always been a respite from the world. For many of us, our daily lives now upended by quarantine, our homes have suddenly become our world.

When we think of the technology that makes our homebound life bearable, we call to mind those electronic devices that allow us to remain connected to the outside world. However, it might surprise us to know that, for our ancestors, many of the objects we take for granted, like napkins, forks and mattresses, were also once marvels of comfort and technology—available to only the few. Our temperature-controlled homes filled with comfortable furniture and lights that turn on at the flick of a switch are luxuries unfathomable to the kings and queens of the past. Those things that were once only the purview of royalty—chandeliers, comfortable seating, bed pillows—have become such a part of our everyday lives that we forget that all but the basic necessities for survival were once out of reach for all but the upper echelon of society. Our homes are castles beyond what they could have ever imagined.

Perhaps, like me, you'll find yourself grateful for our ancestors who suffered with stone or wooden headrests, stiff-backed chairs and cold nights before feather-stuffed pillows and fluffy duvets were part of everyday life (and appreciative of those who imagined that things could be better). In The Elements of a Home: Curious Histories Behind Everyday Household Objects, from Pillows to Forks, I've uncovered the stories behind the objects that fill our homes and our lives. They all come with stories. What follows are a few of my favorites.

In some homes, fireplaces remained lit for generations.

While contemporary fireplaces are used mostly as a design focal point, for thousands of years the fireplace was a necessary source of both heat and light. All medieval homes, whether a hut or manor, were built around a simple open hearth—very much like building a campfire in the center of a home (talk about smoke inhalation!). Families throughout Europe would gather around the fireplace to cook and eat, tell stories and sleep. It was so essential to everyday life that the hearth fire was rarely allowed to die out.

The fork was once considered immoral, unhygienic and a tool of the devil.

In fact, the word "fork" is derived from the Latin furca, which means pitchfork. The first dining forks were used by the ruling class in the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire. In 1004, Maria Argyropoulina, niece of the Byzantine emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII, was married to the son of the Doge of Venice. She brought with her a little case of two-pronged golden forks, which she used at her wedding feast. The Venetians were shocked, and when Maria died three years later of the plague, Saint Peter Damian proclaimed it was God's punishment. And with that, Saint Peter Damian closed the book on the fork in Europe for the next four hundred years.

The chopstick predates the fork by about 4,500 years.

The ones you encounter with the most regularity might be waribashi, disposable chopsticks made of cheap wood found at many Japanese and Chinese restaurants. These aren't a modern invention. Waribashi were used in the first Japanese restaurants in the 18th century. There is a Shinto belief that something that has been in another's mouth picks up aspects of their personality; therefore, you did not share chopsticks, even if they had been washed.

Keys weren't always pocket-sized.

The greatest luxury is not high thread count sheets or the quality of your crystal, it's the feeling of security and sanctuary that comes when you click the lock to the door of your home closed behind you. However, the ones that opened the wooden locks of the massive marble and bronze doors of the Greek and Egyptians could be three-feet in length, and so heavy that they were commonly carried slung over the shoulder—a fact that is mentioned in the Bible. The prophet Isaiah proclaimed, “And the key of the house of David will lay upon his shoulder.”

Ancient Romans, who lived extravagantly in most other aspects of their lives, were surprisingly spartan when it came to their bedrooms.

The poor slept on a straw mattress set in a simple wooden frame. If your purse allowed, the frame was cast in bronze or even silver, topped with a mattress stuffed with wool or down. The bed—and only the bed—resided in a room called a cubiculum (from which we get the word cubicle), a small space with tiny windows that let in little light.

The first proto-napkins were lumps of dough called apomagdalie.

Used by the Spartans—those residents of the military powerhouse city in ancient Greece—the dough was cut into small pieces that were rolled and kneaded at the table, deftly cleaning oily fingers and then thrown to the dogs at the meal's end. Eventually, raw dough became cooked dough, or bread. Since there weren't any utensils on the Greek table, bread also served as both spoon and fork (the food would have been cut into bite-size pieces in the kitchen) so using bread to discreetly keep your fingers clean before taking a smear of hummus wasn't just delicious, it was convenient.

Plates were once made out of bread.

If you've ever slurped clam chowder out of a bread bowl, then you'll appreciate the medieval trencher. These “plates,” used throughout Europe and the United Kingdom, were cut from large round loaves of whole wheat bread that were aged for four days, then sliced into two three-inch rounds. Partygoers would rarely eat the trencher; once supper was finished, those that were still in one piece were given to the destitute, or thrown to the dogs.

Playing cards came from the only nation with the paper-making technology to pull it off: China.

The first known cards, developed in the ninth century A.D. were the size of dominoes. In China, card games became popular as an activity that was good for the mind—meditative, yet challenging, as well as social. In 969 A.D., when Emperor Muzong of Liao capped off a 25-day drinking binge by playing cards with his empress, it's doubtful he had any idea that his favorite pastime would travel the Silk Road through India and Persia before igniting a frenzy for the game in Europe.

In Ancient Egypt, pillows were more like small pieces of furniture than stuffed cushions.

For those of us who spend half the night folding, turning or fluffing our pillows in an effort to find the perfect sleep position, it's difficult to imagine that softness hasn't always been a priority. For many living in ancient Africa, Asia and Oceania, pillows were stiffer than the stuffed cushions we have come to rely on for a good night's sleep. These early pillows, some dating as far back as the Third Dynasty (around 2707-2369 B.C.E.) look a bit like child-sized stools with a curved piece resting upon a pillar. These stands supported the neck, not the head, perhaps to safeguard the elaborate hairdos that were en vogue.

Eating on a bare table was once something only a peasant would do.

Medieval diners would be horrified at our casual attitude toward table linens. For knights and their ladies, good linen was a sign of good breeding. If you could afford it (and maybe even if you couldn't), the table would be covered by a white tablecloth, pleated for a little extra oompf. A colored cloth was thought to impair the appetite. (The exception to the white-only rule was in rural areas where the top cloth might be woven with colorful stripes, plaids or checks.) Diners sat along one side of the table and the tablecloth hung to the floor only on that side to protect guests from drafts and keep the animals from walking over their feet.